The anchoring effect is a cognitive bias whereby an individual's decisions are influenced by a particular reference point or 'anchor'. Both numeric and non-numeric anchoring have been reported in research. In numeric anchoring, once the value of the anchor is set, subsequent arguments, estimates, etc. made by an individual may change from what they would have otherwise been without the anchor.
For example, an individual may be more likely to purchase a car if it is placed alongside a more expensive model (the anchor).
Prices discussed in negotiations that are lower than the anchor may seem reasonable, perhaps even cheap to the buyer, even if said prices are still relatively higher than the actual market value of the car.
Another example may be when estimating the orbit of Mars, one might start with the Earth's orbit (365 days) and then adjust upward until they reach a value that seems reasonable (usually less than 687 days, the correct answer).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring_(cognitive_bias)

Continue exploring more about the anchoring bias in the Anchoring Bias group, or continue to the next lesson.
Confirmation Bias (Bias)

In the field of psychology, cognitive dissonance is the perception of contradictory information, and the mental toll of it.
Relevant items of information include a person's actions, feelings, ideas, beliefs, values, and things in the environment.
Cognitive dissonance is typically experienced as psychological stress when persons participate in an action that goes against one or more of those things.
According to this theory, when two actions or ideas are not psychologically consistent with each other, people do all in their power to change them until they become consistent.
The discomfort is triggered by the person's belief clashing with new information perceived, wherein the individual tries to find a way to resolve the contradiction to reduce their discomfort.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance

Continue exploring more about the cognitive dissonance in the Cognitive Dissonance discussion group, or continue to the next lesson.
Thank you!

Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms or supports one's prior beliefs or values.
People display this bias when they select information that supports their views, ignoring contrary information, or when they interpret ambiguous evidence as supporting their existing attitudes.
The effect is strongest for desired outcomes, for emotionally charged issues, and for deeply entrenched beliefs. Confirmation bias cannot be eliminated, but it can be managed, for example, by education and training in critical thinking skills.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias

Continue exploring more about the confirmation bias in the Confirmation Bias group, or continue to the next lesson.
Cognitive Dissonance (Bias)

Media bias is the bias of journalists and news producers within the mass media in the selection of many events and stories that are reported and how they are covered.
The term "media bias" implies a pervasive or widespread bias contravening of the standards of journalism, rather than the perspective of an individual journalist or article. The direction and degree of media bias in various countries is widely disputed.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_bias

Continue exploring more about biases in media in the Media Bias group, or continue to the next lesson.
Anchoring Bias

A red herring is something that misleads or distracts from a relevant or important question. It may be either a logical fallacy or a literary device that leads readers or audiences toward a false conclusion. A red herring may be used intentionally, as in mystery fiction or as part of rhetorical strategies (e.g., in politics), or may be used in argumentation inadvertently.
The term was popularized in 1807 by English polemicist William Cobbett, who told a story of having used a strong-smelling smoked fish to divert and distract hounds from chasing a rabbit.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_herring

Continue exploring more about this fallacy in the Red Herring fallacy group, or continue to the next lesson.
Media Bias (Bias)

This section is created to introduce basic concepts in bias and fallacy and how to identify and avoid them in discussion.

Bias is a disproportionate weight in favor of or against an idea or thing, usually in a way that is closed-minded, prejudicial, or unfair. Biases can be innate or learned. People may develop biases for or against an individual, a group, or a belief. 
Biases exists in many forms and can exist in any field of practice such as science, law and in news and media as well. It is important to be aware of them in order for citizens, educators and professionals to make sound decesions.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bias

A fallacy is the use of invalid or otherwise faulty reasoning, or "wrong moves," in the construction of an argument which may appear stronger than it really is if the fallacy is not spotted.
Some fallacies may be committed intentionally to manipulate or persuade by deception.
Others may be committed unintentionally because of human limitations such as carelessness, cognitive or social biases and ignorance, or, potentially, as the inevitable consequence of the limitations of language and understanding of language.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallacy

As you complete each lesson learning about types of bias and fallacy, the practice of identifying and avoiding their use can help discussion stay more productive, civil and focused on the topic.
Ad Hominem (Fallacy)

A straw man (sometimes written as strawman) is a form of argument and an informal fallacy of having the impression of refuting an argument, whereas the real subject of the argument was not addressed or refuted, but instead replaced with a false one.
One who engages in this fallacy is said to be "attacking a straw man".
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straw_man

Continue exploring more about this fallacy in the Strawman fallacy group, or continue to the next lesson.
Red Herring (Fallacy)

Typically, this term refers to a rhetorical strategy where the speaker attacks the character, motive, or some other attribute of the person making an argument rather than addressing the substance of the argument itself.
The most common form of ad hominem is "A makes a claim x, B asserts that A holds a property that is unwelcome, and hence B concludes that argument x is wrong".
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_hominem

Continue exploring more about this fallacy in the Ad Hominem fallacy group, or continue to the next lesson.
Strawman Fallacy

~ The abilities to access, analyze, evaluate, and create various media messages in a variety of forms.

As new forms of media have been adopted, such as the printing press, TV or the internet, new skill have become necessary to use them in a beneficial way.

Why is media literacy important? Because free societies rely on informed citizens to facilitate the civil discourse for social and economic reform.

Media is “anything” by which a communication or message is transited.

All media is constructed by a people usually for economic purposes and/or special interests.
Since media is only a construct of the real world, it should “not” be considered reality.

Important context can often be missed or omitted from historical record.

Biases are inherent in human perception and decision making.
But may be reduced through public awareness and the practice of better methods in media creation.

In news and media, biases exist with the publisher when created, with the viewer when interpreting that information and within the framing of subject matter itself.

Since media is constructed, it is made to get some type of action or reaction from the viewer. Ads are made to sell a product directly, where news outlets should promote an ideology of ethical and transparent methods in news creation and retain trust from their audience by sourcing valuable, actionable and newsworthy information.

You have completed an intro to Media Literacy! We hope you have learned something new and will put these skill to good use.

Here is an Overview:

• Who creates news or media content and for what purpose?
• What economic, political and conflicts of interest are involved in its production?
• What biases and fallacies are inherent in the news or media content?
• What information has been omitted and what are the competing biases and viewpoints?
• What action is news or media content trying to get me to take?

Join the discussion and continue learning more in the Media Literacy group.

Or continue to the next lesson.
News & Journalism - Lesson 2

News refers generally to new information or recent events that have occurred and are considered of importance or interest to the public.
Journalism is the practice of gathering, writing, and reporting on that news and information considered to be in the interests of the public. It involves investigating and seeking out the truth, and presenting it in an accurate, fair, and balanced way so that people can make wise choices in their lives and communities.
Journalism is an important part of a functioning democracy, as it helps to hold those in power accountable and provides a forum for public debate and discussion.  
Journalism provides a critical source of information for the public, helping people to stay informed about what is happening in their communities and around the world.

1st Amendment

“Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.”

Freedom of speech and Freedom of the Press are fundamental human rights because citizens in free societies have the right to keep one another informed about what’s going on in their lives and communities.
Democracy being based on localization and self-governance, requires an informed citizenry to practice journalism and operate news outlets themselves.
Free thought, speech and press allow for the first peaceful means of resolution in any conflict and a primary means for protection of all other human rights.
For U.S. citizens, the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution protects the rights of a civilian based press.
Therefore anyone can practice and become a journalist freely!

“The Elements of Journalism“

Though methods of communication have advanced over time, the principles of journalism remain the same.

 

1. Journalism’s first obligation is to the truth.
2. Its first loyalty is to citizens.
3. Its essence is the discipline of verification.
4. Its practitioners must maintain an independence from those they cover.
5. It must serve as a monitor of power.
6. It must provide a forum for public criticism and compromise.
7. It must strive to make the significant interesting and relevant.
8. It must present the news in a way that is comprehensive and proportional.
9. Its practitioners have an obligation to exercise their personal conscious.
10. Citizens have rights and responsibilities when it comes to the news as well — even more so as they become producers and editors themselves.

Bill Kovach, Tom Rosenstiel, (2014). The Elements of Journalism (3rd Edition) Three Rivers Press

The 5 W's (also known as the 5 W's and H) are a set of questions that journalists use to gather information about a news story. The 5 W's are:

• Who: Who is involved in the story? This could be individuals, groups, or organizations.
• What: What happened? What are the key facts or details that happened during the event?
• When: When did the event or course of events take place?
• Where: Where did the event or course of events take place?
• Why: Why did the event happen? What was the cause or motivation behind it?

The H is:

6. How: How did the event happen? What were the circumstances or details surrounding it?

The 5 W's and H are used to ensure that a news story is complete and provides all the necessary information to the reader or viewer. They help journalists to organize their information and present it in a clear and concise manner.

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Inverse Pyramid - Is a method used by news outlets and journalists to organize information in a way that makes it easier for readers to understand and follow.

The inverse pyramid begins by delivering the most important or “Need to Know“ information first. This is followed by the middle details such as evidence to support the claim as well as interesting or related details which might lead to further knowledge or follow up on the story. Here is a simple outline of the inverted pyramid style:

1. Headline: A strong and informative headline that summarizes the main points of the story.
2. Lead paragraph: A summary of the main points of the story that provides the most important information. This should include the who, what, when, where, and why of the story.
3. Supporting paragraphs: Additional information and details about the story, including quotes from sources, background information, and context.
4. Less important information: Any additional information that is not crucial to the story, such as tangential details or minor developments.
5. Conclusion: A summary of the main points of the story and any remaining important information.

This outline can be followed when writing any type of news article or report, whether it is for a newspaper, website, or television news program. It helps to organize the information in a clear and concise manner that presents the most important information first.

You have completed an introduction to some of the basic concepts and methods in the production of News and Journalism. Practice these tips and explore more in the News and Journalism Literacy section or continue to the next lesson.
Bias & Fallacy